An ancient cult in Rome

 

More things to see underground in Rome

Mithras was a Persian god introduced to Rome by the sol­diers stationed in the east. The god Mithras was born from a rock and when he died, he ascended into heaven. Like Jesus, he came to earth to show the way and oppose evil. His followers were baptized in bull’s blood. He is always depicted wearing a conical hat with the top folded forwards, which was associated with Persians and Eastern European tribes at the time.

The legionaries built temples to the god Mithras all over the empire. This religion was very popular with the Roman aristoc­racy and was in direct competi­tion with Christianity until it was outlawed in 395. Rome Mithraeum temples usually date between 100 BC and 300 AD.

The god Mithras shown killing the bull

One of the best examples that you can visit is under the basilica of San Clemente. San Clemente is like a time machine of Rome across the centuries. Constructions from the first, third, fourth centuries, Mid­dle Ages and then additions in the eigh­teenth century are overlaid on four levels.

At the lowest level, under the basilica of San Clemente, in the courtyard of a first century apartment block, a Mithraeum was erected, which included a pronaos (vestibule) and triclin­ium (dining room). In the latter are the altar and the benches where the participants of this mysterious religion sat. The vault of the grotto represented the heavens, that is, the universe. On the ceiling were stars and the constellations known at that time. This religion put emphasis on loyalty and faith and, for this, held particular sway on the military. The Roman legions introduced it in all parts of the empire and remains of Mithraeums have been found in many countries.

The mithraeum under San Clemente with the altar and seating benches

The muscular god Mithras is represented while killing a bull, whose blood makes the earth fertile. Even though the cult originated in Per­sia, a bearded and reclining Roman god, possibly Oceanus or Nep­tune, often assists in the foreground of the scene. A dog instrumen­tal in finding the bull is sometimes depicted while the tail of the bull terminates in a large stalk of grain that symbolizes the cycle of life made possible by the blood of the animal.

It has been estimated that during the third cen­tury about 2000 mithraeums flourished in the city. For another example, excavations underground at Santa Prisca have brought to light an extraordinarily complete Mithraeum. This cult was very popular in the early days of Christianity and after it fell out of favor, frequently churches were built over the unused buildings. At least 3 other rooms have been recovered, one used by the Pontifex and the ministers to don the sacred liturgical vests for the procession and sacred functions. It is open to the public the 2nd and 4th Sunday of the month. 

The mithraeum under Santa Prisca

Other sites that have excavated remains are the Mithraeum of Circus Maximus, the mithraeum beneath the opulent Palazzo Barberini, The Baths of Caracalla and the Mithraeum of the Seven Spheres, in Ostia Antica. Although the mithraeum under San Clemente is always available to visitors, most of the others have limited access.

Popes’ contributions to Art and Architecture in Rome

Popes have been in the news lately with the death of Pope Francis and the election of Pope Leo XIV. The contributions of the popes to Rome’s art and architecture extend from the early Christian period to the Renaissance, Baroque, and even modern eras. As you walk through Rome now, you will encounter mostly Renaissance and Baroque examples, but beneath the new façades are frequently ancient beginnings. 

Perhaps the oldest to be begun by a pope was Santa Maria in Trastevere. The first sanctuary was built in 221 and 227 on land donated by Pope Callixtus I.

Santa Maria in Trastevere

The Renaissance popes, particularly from the late 15th to early 16th centuries, were instrumental in the revival of classical forms in art and architecture, marking a break from medieval styles.

Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455) is often considered the first of the "Renaissance" popes. He commissioned major rebuilding projects in Rome, including the restoration of the Roman aqueducts and the founding of the Vatican Library.

 

Capella Sistina

Around 1475 Pope Sixtus IV (1471-1484) had the chapel which bears his name, the Sistine Chapel, built in the Vatican. This is the location where the Conclave of Cardinals meets after a pope dies to elect his successor. He donated many sculptures from the classical period which formed the first public art collection, now known as the Palazzo dei Conservatori, on the Campidoglio hill. He had the Santa Maria del Popolo church rebuilt and in 1475 on the occasion of the Jubilee, had a bridge built to facilitate moving pilgrims from the left bank where most of the city was, including the seven hills, to the Vatican on the right bank. It is of course named Ponte Sisto.

 

Ponte Sisto

In 1506 an ancient statue, the Laocoön, was discovered in a vineyard on the Oppio Hill in Rome. This, together with another ancient statue, the Belvedere Apollo, formed the basis of the Vatican collection begun by Pope Julius II (1503 -1513). Over the succeeding years hundreds of sculptures and paintings were added. Pope Julius II was one of the most significant patrons of art during the Renaissance. He commissioned Michelangelo to paint the Sistine Chapel ceiling (1508–1512), one of the most famous works in Western art, and oversaw the construction of the new St. Peter's Basilica, commissioning works from architects like Donato Bramante, Michelangelo, and Carlo Maderno. Also in the Vatican, he had Raffaello decorate the walls of his apartments with frescoes, now known as the Stanze di Raffaello. After Julius’ death, Pope Leo X (1513-1521) continued his support for Raffaello’s work.

Stanze di Raffaello

Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) is responsible for a significant quantity of Baroque art and architecture. He commissioned many works by Gian Lorenzo Bernini, such as the famous Baldacchino (canopy) above St. Peter's altar and the Piazza San Pietro (St. Peter's Square). Bernini also designed the dramatic Cathedra Petri (the Throne of St. Peter) in St. Peter's Basilica and the monumental tomb of Urban VIII , also inside St. Peter’s.

Bernini's colonnade at St. Peter's

The Bernini’s iconic colonnade that embraces visitors in St, Peter’s square is one of the most emblematic features of Baroque architecture. And was realized during the reign of Pope Alexander VII (1655-1667).

Pope Innocent X (1644-1655) continued support for the arts, including Bernini’s Fountain of the four Rivers in Piazza Navona.  He and other popes of that period were major patrons of the many Baroque church façades that define Rome’s skyline. These include Francesco Borromini’s work on Sant'Ivo alla Sapienza and San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane.

Interior of Borromini's San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane

Patronage of Artists: Over the centuries, popes commissioned countless works of art, contributing to the creation of masterpieces in painting, sculpture, and architecture. Artists such as Michelangelo, Raphael, Bernini, and Caravaggio received papal commissions that shaped the trajectory of European art. Their support of artists, architects, and builders helped create some of the most iconic buildings and works of art in Western history, from the early Christian basilicas to Renaissance masterpieces and Baroque grandeur. Their influence not only shaped the city of Rome but also had a profound impact on the development of Western art and architecture as a whole.

Tipping in Italy

 In Italy, and much of Europe, tipping has been historically modest or even nonexistent.

The service industry workers generally receive fair wages, and a tip is seen as a gesture of appreciation rather than an obligation. In most cases, tipping remains optional, with the amount left entirely up to the customer.

With more tourists visiting Italy each year and Italian hospitality increasingly blending with international practices, leaving a tip is now becoming more familiar in major Italian cities, particularly in popular tourist areas.  However sometimes it can get confusing, especially in the restaurants.

1. Restaurants

• ·       A coperto in the bill, or cover charge, is common. This charge, typically around 2-3 €, covers the setup at the table, including the tablecloth, napkins, bread, and other basic services.
•  Tipping Some restaurants also include a servizio (service charge) in the bill of 10-15%, particularly in high-end dining spots, which generally means that additional tipping is not expected.  So, if there is no service charge and you like the outing, a tip would express your appreciation.
• ·Cash tips: It’s customary to leave the tip in cash, even if you pay the bill by card, since there is no line for a tip on the credit card slip.

 

2. Bars/Cafes

• Coffee or drinks: Tipping is not typically expected in casual settings, like a coffee bar or a quick espresso. However, if you're sitting at a table or having a meal, leaving small change (around €1 or 2) is appreciated.
• Barista tips: At a café, many customers leave the change or a few coins on the counter as a tip, but it's not mandatory. The only case in which the tip is sometimes given in advance: ten or twenty cents are placed on the counter, in plain sight for the person preparing the coffee or cappuccino. In this case the function is preventive, to encourage the preparation of the best possible drink.

3. Hotels

• Bellhops/Porters: For bellhops or porters, a tip of €1-€2 per bag is appreciated.
• Housekeeping: Tipping housekeepers is not common but can be done for exceptional service. A tip of €1-€2 per night is a good amount, left in an envelope or placed on the bed.
• Concierge: If the concierge provides a special service, such as securing a reservation or helping with tickets, a tip is appreciated.
• Doormen: If a doorman assists with hailing a taxi or providing other services, you might tip €1-€2.

4.  Taxis

·       It is not mandatory to leave a tip for the taxi driver, but it is common practice to round up the amount of the ride in favor of the taxi driver. For example, if the ride costs 9.50 euros, you can leave 10 euros, as a gesture of courtesy.  For particularly friendly or helpful service (for example, for a very comfortable taxi or a special route), a tip of 1-2 euros is acceptable.

5. Tours and Tourist Guides

·       If you are taking an organized group tour, a tip of 5 -10€ is common and appreciated. For private guides or drivers, a tip of 10-20 euros is typical.

6. Parking attendants (Valet)

·       If a valet takes care of parking your car for you, a tip of 1-2 euros is usually sufficient. In some touristy or upscale areas, the tip may be higher (3-5 euros).

7. Hairdressers/Barbers

Tipping hairdressers or barbers is not expected, but if you’re particularly happy with the service, a small tip of is appreciated.

8. Beach Resorts

·      Not typical, but if the staff at a beach resort provides good service (such as bringing drinks or setting up umbrellas or sun loungers), a tip of 1-2 euros for each service received is generally appreciated.