Hadrian’s Wall in Britain

 The Romans, as we know, were great builders: baths, roads, amphitheaters, forums, palaces, markets, and of course, walls. One of the longest and most impressive is Hadrian’s Wall, near the border between Scotland and England. Britain was invaded in 43 AD under the emperor Claudius, and over the succeeding decades the army continued the advance northward, so by 79 AD had pushed into the lower part of Scotland, when work began on forts to stabilize the lands.

Hadrian's Wall extends in the distance

Soon, the empire’s attention was redirected to the attacks by the Dacians, Sarmations and others in the area of the lower Danube, and some troops were removed to the continent. Emperor Hadrian (reigned 117 to 138 AD) abandoned continual conquest and expansion in favor of enclosing the Roman empire within clearly marked frontiers. In some provinces, the frontier consisted of a road or a river guarded by forts and towers, while in others (including Germany, Africa and Britain) the frontier lines consisted of running barriers.

The northern British tribes were troublesome and did not readily accept Romanization. They continued to farm the land in their old ways, and probably fought each other. Since we do not know enough about the tribes to be certain that they were not constantly aggressive, the function of Hadrian’s Wall can be interpreted only from the archaeological remains, with no clues as to Roman policy in dealing with natives. Was it to keep them out or to protect those in the south? This is still a matter of conjecture.

One of the milecastles along the wall

The original motivation was probably to place the wall at the limit where it was possible to maintain a measure of peace, and to secure the border against the northern foes. But in recent times it has been seen also as a line of observation and control, rather than a purely defensible border. It regulated movement back and forth with the north. Another theory is that building and maintaining the wall kept the army busy when they were no longer employed in imperial expansion, so deterring them from posing a threat to the emperor.

What we do know is that the Roman army was expert in building. They were specialists in transforming the environment, putting up fortifications at a moment’s notice, bridging rivers, cutting down forests and building supply routes. The amazing achievement of the wall began with surveying the 73 mile path, from coast to coast, and positioning of 240 structures – forts, milecastles, towers, and bridges where needed. The wall itself, originally around ten Roman feet (shorter than the standard English feet) thick, later reduced to eight feet, resulted in a frontier of different dimensions. We do not know if the Romans patrolled along the wall or confined their lookout posts to the milecastles and turrets placed every third of a mile between them.

The original version of the western portion of the wall was built of turf and as time went on, replaced in stone. Stone was used for most of the eastern part from the beginning. It was protected by a ditch on its northern side and reinforced in some places by three rows of pits, probably at times containing stacked thorn branches, which made penetration difficult. On the south side a larger ditch, called the “vallum,” protected the southern end of the military zone.

Life within the forts included military training and drilling, preparation of meals, guard duty and use of the baths. Cleaning the barracks and repair and maintenance of the wall would have been required. Stone altars have been found which show that gods of various cults were honored.

The baths at the Vindolana fort

Excavations along the wall have produced amazing quantities of artifacts, especially from the area known as Vindolanda: a fort with barracks and military equipment, shoes, boxing gloves, and incredible wooden tablets with ink writing still decipherable. A museum includes full-sized reconstructions of a Roman temple, a shop and a house. Exhibits include Roman boots, shoes, armor, jewelry and coins, infrared photographs of the writing tablets and a small selection of the tablets themselves. Others are in the British Museum.

On one tablet from about 100 AD, Claudia Severa, wife of Aelius Brocchus, (commander of a nearby fort) writes to Sulpicia Lepidina, sending an invitation to visit for her birthday. This and another letter are thought to be the oldest extant writing by a woman in Latin found in Britain, or perhaps anywhere. Part of the text:

“On 11 September, sister, for the day of the celebration of my birthday, I give you a warm invitation to make sure that you come to us, to make the day more enjoyable for me by your arrival, if you are present.”

Part of the letter in ink on a tablet of wood

At the end of the Roman period in the fifth century, the wall’s function as a frontier may have been lost, with people instead trying to make a living inside the forts, looking to their own protection for as long as they could. By the late sixth century, much of the frontier had probably been abandoned. It was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1987.